고대 인도 무역 시스템

고대 인도의 역사.

2011 년 12 월 15 일에 출판되었습니다.

인도에서 인간 활동의 가장 초기 인장은 구석기 시대로 거슬러 올라간다. 기원전 40 만에서 20 만년 사이이다. 이 시대의 돌을 구현하고 동굴 벽화가 남아시아의 많은 지역에서 발견되었습니다. 동물의 가축화, 농업의 채택, 영원한 마을 정착촌, 기원전 6 천년 기 간 중반부터 바퀴 달린 도자기의 증거. 현재 파키스탄에서 신드와 발 루치 스탄 (또는 파키스탄에서 현재 사용중인 발 루치 스탄)의 산기슭에서 발견되었습니다. 서면 체계, 도시 중심, 다양 화 된 사회 경제적 체계를 갖춘 최초의 위대한 문명 중 하나는 주전 삼천년에 나타났습니다. 펀 자브와 신드의 인더스 강 계곡을 따라 발 루치 스탄의 경계에서 라자스탄의 사막까지, 히말라야 산기슭에서 구자라트의 남쪽 끝에 80 만 평방 킬로미터 이상을 덮었습니다. Mohenjo-daro와 Harappa라는 두 주요 도시의 잔재는 획일적 인 도시 계획과 신중하게 레이아웃, 물 공급 및 배수 작업을 수행 한 놀라운 기술 업적을 보여줍니다. 인도와 파키스탄의 약 70 개 지역에서이 유적지와 이후 고고학 발굴 작업을 통해 현재 일반적으로하라 팡 문화 (주전 2500-1600)로 알려진 것을 종합적으로 보여줍니다.

주요 도시에는 성채, 개인 및 공동 목욕탕을위한 대 목욕탕, 차별화 된 숙소, 평평한 지붕이 달린 벽돌집 및 회의실 및 곡물 창고를 둘러싸는 요새화 된 행정 또는 종교 센터가 포함 된 몇 개의 큰 건물이있었습니다. 근본적으로 도시 문화였던 Harappan의 삶은 광범위한 농업 생산과 메소포타미아 남부 (현대의 이라크)에서 수머와의 무역을 포함하는 상거래로 뒷받침되었습니다. 사람들은 구리와 청동으로 도구와 무기를 만들었지 만 철은 만들지 않았습니다. 목화는 짠 옷감으로 염색되었습니다. 밀, 쌀, 다양한 채소 및 과일 재배; 혹등 황소를 포함하여 다수의 동물들이 가축화되었습니다. Harappan 문화는 보수적이었고 수세기 동안 상대적으로 변하지 않았습니다. 정기적 인 홍수로 도시가 재건축 될 때마다 새로운 수준의 건설이 이전 패턴을 밀접하게 따른다. 비록 안정성, 규칙 성 및 보수주의가이 사람들의 특징이었던 것 같지만 귀족이든, 사제이든, 상업적 소수이든 권위를 행사 한 사람은 누구인지 분명하지 않습니다.

광고.

지금까지 발굴 된 가장 훌륭하고 그러나 가장 모호한 Harappan 유물은 Mohenjo-daro에서 풍성하게 발견되는 동석 물개입니다. 인간이나 동물의 모티프가있는 작고 평평하며 대부분 정사각형 인 물체는하라 빤 삶의 가장 정확한 그림을 제공합니다. 그들은 또한 Harappan 대본에있는 것으로 일반적으로 생각되는 비문을 가지고 있는데, 해설본은 그것을 해독하려는 학자들의 시도를 피했다. 스크립트가 숫자 또는 알파벳을 나타내는 지, 알파벳 인 경우 원시 Dravidian인지 아니면 원시 산스크리트인지에 대한 토론이 풍부합니다.

하라 팡 문명의 쇠퇴에 대한 이유는 오랫동안 학자들을 괴롭혔다. 중부 및 서부 아시아의 침략자들은 일부 역사가들에 의해 "파괴자들"이었던 것으로 여겨진다. Harappan 도시의, 그러나이 전망은 재 해석에 열려 있습니다. 보다 그럴듯한 설명은 지각 변동, 토양 염분 및 사막화로 인한 반복적 인 홍수입니다.

VEDIC ARYANS.

Indo-European-speaking seminomads에 의한 일련의 이주는 주전 2 천년 동안 일어났다. 아리아 인 (Aryans)으로 알려진이 예비 목회자들은 초기의 형태의 산스크리트어를 사용했는데, 이란의 아베스타 인 (Avestan)과 고대 그리스어와 라틴어와 같은 다른 인도 - 유럽 언어와 가까운 언어 학적 유사성을 가지고있다. 아리안 (Aryan)이라는 용어는 순수한 의미로 침략자들을 암시했다. 그들의 주민들의 정체성과 뿌리를 유지하면서 의식을 잃지 않고 초기 거주민들과의 사회적 거리를 유지하려고 시도했다.

광고.

고고학이 아리아 인의 정체성에 대한 증거를 제시하지는 않았지만, 인도 - 갠지스 평야 전역에서 그들의 문화가 진화하고 확산되는 것은 일반적으로 확실하지 않습니다. 이 과정의 초기 단계에 대한 현대의 지식은 신성한 본문 즉, 베다 (찬송가, 기도 및 전례 모음), 바라문과 우파니샤드 (베다 제례 및 철학적 논문에 대한 주석), 푸라 나 전통 신화 역사적 작품). 이 본문들에 부여 된 신성함과 끊임없는 구두 전통에 의한 수천 년에 걸친 그들의 보존 방식은 살아있는 힌두 전통의 일부가되게합니다.

이 성스러운 텍스트는 아리안 신앙과 활동을 이어주는 지침을 제공합니다. 아리아 인들은 부족의 수장이나 라자를 따라 범신론적인 사람들이었으며, 서로 또는 다른 외계 종족과의 전쟁에 참여했으며, 통합 된 영토와 차별화 된 직종으로 점차 정착 된 농업가가되었습니다. 말이 끌린 병거와 천문학 및 수학에 관한 그들의 기술을 사용하는 기술은 다른 사람들로 하여금 그들의 사회적 풍습과 종교적 신념을 받아들이도록 유도 한 군사적, 기술적 이점을 제공했습니다. 기원전 약 1,000 년까지 아리안 문화는 Vindhya Range의 북쪽 인도 전역으로 퍼져 나갔고, 그 이전의 다른 문화들과 많이 동화되었다.

아리아 인들은 그들과 함께 새로운 언어, 의인화 된 신의 새로운 판테온, 부계 ‧ 가부장제의 가족 제도, 그리고 새로운 사회 질서를 가져 왔으며, 종교적, 철학적 근거에 따라 바르 마쉬 마라 마 (varnashramadharma)를 건설했다. 영어로의 정확한 번역은 어렵지만, 인도 전통 사회 조직의 기반 인 varnashramadharma 개념은 세 가지 기본 개념, 즉 바르나 (varna, 원래는 "색", 나중에는 사회 계층을 의미하는 용어 - 용어집 참조)를 기반으로합니다. (청소년, 가족 생활, 물질 세계로부터의 분리, 포기), 법 (의무, 정의 또는 성스러운 우주 법)과 같은 것들을 포함한다. 근본적인 믿음은 현재의 행복과 미래의 구원이 윤리적 또는 도덕적 행위에 달려 있다는 것입니다. 그러므로 사회와 개인은 모두 출생, 나이 및 삶의 터전을 기반으로 모든 사람에게 적절하다고 여겨지는 다양하지만 의로운 길을 추구해야합니다. Brahman (사제), Kshatriya (전사) 및 Vaishya (평민)의 원래 3 계층 사회는 궁극적으로 정복당한 사람들 Shudra (하인)을 흡수하기 위해 4 명으로 확장되었지만 5 명 외진 사람들이 고려됩니다.

광고.

아리안 사회의 기본 단위는 확장되고 가부장적 인 가족이었습니다. 관련 가족들의 집단이 마을을 구성하고 몇몇 마을들은 부족 단위를 형성했습니다. 나중에 결혼 한 아동 결혼은 흔하지 않았지만, 파트너의 & # 39; 배우자와 집 지참금 및 신부 가격의 선택에 관여하는 것이 관습적이었습니다. 아들의 탄생은 나중에 떼를 돌보고 전투에서 명예를 가져다 주며 신들에게 희생을 제공하고 재산을 상속하고 성을 전달할 수 있었기 때문에 환영 받았다. 비록 일부 다처제가 알려지지 않았지만 일부일처 제는 널리 받아 들여졌으며 심지어 다산은 이후의 저서에서 언급된다. 미망인의 의식적인 자살은 남편의 죽음으로 예상되었는데, 이것은 과부가 실제로 남편의 장례식장에서 불타 버린 사티 (posti)로 알려진 연습의 시작일 것입니다.

영구적 인 정착과 농업은 무역 및 다른 직업적 차별화로 이어졌다. Ganga (또는 Ganges)의 땅이 개간됨에 따라, 강은 무역로가되었고, 은행의 수많은 정착지가 시장으로 사용되었습니다. 무역은 초기에는 지역에만 국한되어 있었고, 물물 교환은 무역의 필수 요소였으며 소는 대규모 거래에서 가치의 단위였으며 이로 인해 상인의 지리적 인 범위가 제한되었습니다. 관습은 법률이었고, 왕과 대제사는 중재자였으며, 아마 지역 사회의 장로들에게 조언을 받았습니다. 아리안 라자 (Aryan raja) 또는 왕 (king)은 주로 군대의 지도자였으며, 성공적으로 소를 습격하거나 전투를 마친 후 전리품을 가져갔습니다. 라자 족은 권위를 주장 할 수는 있었지만, 성직자들과의 갈등을 피할 수 없었으며, 지식과 엄격한 종교 생활이 지역 사회의 다른 종교 생활보다 뛰어 났으며, 라자 족은 제사장들과 자신의 이익을 훼손했다.

왕국 & amp; 제국.

펀 자브 (Punjab) 지역의 원래 정착지에서, 아리안 인들은 서서히 동쪽으로 침투하여 울창한 숲을 깨끗이하고 "부족"을 세우기 시작했다. 1500 년에서 1800 년 사이에 Ganga와 Yamuna (Jamuna) 평야를 따라 정착했다. 주전 800 년경. 기원전 500 년경 인도 북부 지방 대부분이 거주하고 있었으며, 황소 밭을 포함한 철 도구 사용에 대한 지식을 촉진하고, 자발적이고 강제 노동을 제공하는 인구 증가에 힘 입어 재배하에 인도되었다. 강가와 내륙 무역이 번창함에 따라 Ganga에있는 많은 도시들이 무역, 문화 및 고급 생활의 중심지가되었습니다. 인구 증가와 잉여 생산은 분쟁이 자주 발생하는 영토 경계가있는 독립 국가의 출현을위한 기반을 제공했다.

종족 수장들이 이끄는 초보 행정 제도는 Narmada 강 너머의 정착과 농업 지역을 확대하기 위해 수입을 적절히 책정하고 노동을 징집하는 여러 지역의 공화국이나 세습 군주국에 의해 변형되었다. 이 비상 사태는 공무원을 통해 수입을 얻었고 군대를 유지했으며 새로운 도시와 고속도로를 건설했습니다. 기원전 600 년까지, Magadha, Kosala, Kuru, Gandhara를 포함한 16 개의 영토 권력은 현대의 아프가니스탄에서 방글라데시에 이르는 북인도 평야를 가로 질러 뻗어 나갔다. 왕좌에 오른 왕의 권리는 그것이 어떻게 획득되던간에 신의 또는 초 인간적 기원에 근거한 사제들에 의해 만들어진 정교한 제사 의식과 계보를 통해 보통 정당화되었다.

선한 악의 승리는 서사시적인 라마 야나 (Rama의 여행, 또는 선호되는 현대적 형태의 Ram), 다른 서사시 인 Mahabharata (Bharata의 자손의 대 전투)는 법과 의무의 개념을 설명합니다 . 2,500 년이 지난 오늘날 현대 인도의 아버지 인 Mohandas Karamchand (Mahatma) Gandhi는 독립을위한 투쟁에서 이러한 개념을 사용했습니다. Mahabharata는 많은 땅에서 신과 필사자 모두가 싸울 것으로 추정되는 서사적 전투에서 절정에 달했던 아리아 사촌들 사이의 불화를 기록하고 Ramayana는 Rama의 악마 인 Sita, Rama의 아내의 납치에 대해 자세히 이야기합니다 스리랑카 왕 (스리랑카), 그녀의 남편 구제 (동물 동맹군의 지원), 라마의 대관식을 거쳐 번영과 정의의 시대로 이끈다. 20 세기 후반에이 서사시들은 힌두교도의 마음에 남아 있으며 일반적으로 많은 환경에서 읽혀 제정되었습니다. 1980 년대와 1990 년대에는 힌두교 무장 세력과 정치가들이 힘을 얻고 Ram의 탄생지 인 Ramjanmabhumi가 극도로 민감한 공동 문제가되어 힌두교의 대다수가 무슬림 소수.

MAURYAN 제국.

기원전 6 세기 말에 인도의 북서쪽은 페르시아 아케 메 네스 제국에 통합되어 그 전유물 중 하나가되었습니다. 이러한 통합으로 중앙 아시아와 인도 간의 행정 접촉이 시작되었습니다.

기원전 326 년 알렉산더 대 인더스 캠페인을 인도 계좌에서 무시했을지라도, 그리스 작가는이 기간 동안 남아시아의 일반적인 조건에 대한 인상을 기록했다. 따라서, 주전 326 년. 인도 역사에서 처음으로 명확하고 역사적으로 검증 가능한 날짜를 제공합니다. 여러 가지 인도 - 그리스 요소들 - 특히 예술, 건축 및 주화 - 의 양방향 문화 융합은 앞으로 수 백 년 내에 발생했습니다. 북부 인도의 정치적 경관은 동부 인도 간지 평야에서 Magadha의 출현으로 변화되었습니다. 주전 322 년에 마 갈다 (Magadha)는 Chandragupta Maurya의 통치하에 이웃 지역에 대한 헤게모니를 주장하기 시작했다. 주전 324 ~ 301 년을 통치 한 찬드라 갓타 (Chandragupta)는 비하르 (Bihar)에있는 현대의 파트 나 (Patna) 근처의 파트 탈리 푸트 라 (Pataliputra)였던 Mauryan Empire (326-184 B. C.)의 최초의 인도 제국의 힘의 건축가였다.

풍부한 충적 토양과 광물 근처의 광상, 특히 철에 위치한 Magadha는 분주 한 상거래 및 무역의 중심에있었습니다. 이 수도는 기원전 3 세기 메가 스테 네스 (Megasthenes)에 의해보고 된 성대한 궁전, 사원, 대학, 도서관, 정원 및 공원의 도시였습니다. 그리스 역사가이자 Mauryan 법원 대사. 전설에 따르면 Chandragupta의 성공은 정부 관리와 정치 전략을 설명하는 교과서 인 Arthashastra (재료 이익의 과학)의 Brahman 저자 인 고문관 인 Kautilya에게 큰 영향을 미쳤습니다. 세금 징수, 무역 및 상업, 공예, 광업, 중요 통계, 외국인 복지, 시장 및 사원을 포함한 공공 장소의 유지 관리, 매춘 여성 등을 규제하는 대규모 중앙 관리 직원이있는 중앙 정부와 위계 정부가있었습니다. 대규모 군대와 잘 발달 된 간첩 시스템이 유지되었습니다. 제국은 중앙 행정부의 기능을 재현 한 중앙 임명 된 지방 공무원의 다수가 관할하는 지방, 지구, 마을로 나뉘었다.

Chandragupta의 손자 인 Ashoka는 주전 269 년에서 232 년까지 통치했다. 인도의 가장 유명한 통치자 중 한 명이었습니다. Lampaka (현대 아프가니스탄의 Laghman), Mahastan (현대 방글라데시의) 및 Brahmagiri (Karnataka의)와 같은 그의 제국의 전략적 위치에있는 암석 및 돌 기둥으로 조각 된 Ashoka의 비문은 두 번째 세트를 구성합니다 기록 가능한 역사적 기록들. 비문의 일부에 따르면 칼링가 (현대 오리사)의 강력한 왕국에 대한 선거 운동으로 인한 대학살의 여파로 아쇼카는 유혈 사면을 포기하고 정의에 의한 통치 이론을지지하는 비폭력 또는 아힘사 정책을 추구했습니다. 다른 종교적 신념과 언어에 대한 그의 관용은 개인적으로 불교를 따르는 것처럼 보이지만 인도의 지역 다원주의 현실을 반영했다. 이른 불교 이야기는 그가 수도에서 불교 협의회를 소집하고, 정기적으로 그의 영역 안에서 투어를 수행하고, 스리랑카에 불교 선교사 대사를 보냈다는 것을 주장한다.

아쇼카의 전임자들의 통치 기간에 헬레니즘 세계와 확립 된 접촉이 그를 잘 지원했습니다. 그는 시리아, 마케도니아, 에피루스 등 인도의 종교 전통, 특히 불교에 관해 배운 통치자들에게 외교관 겸 종교 선교를 보냈다. 인도의 북서부에는 많은 페르시아 문화 요소가 그대로 남아 있는데, 이는 아쇼카의 암석 비문을 설명 할 수 있습니다. 이러한 비문은 일반적으로 페르시아 통치자와 관련되어있었습니다. 아프가니스탄의 칸다하르에서 발견 된 아소카의 그리스어와 아람어 비문은 또한 인도 이외의 사람들과 관계를 유지하려는 그의 열망을 나타낼 수 있습니다.

주전 2 세기에 Mauryan 제국이 해체 된 후, 남아시아는 경계가 겹치는 지역 권력의 콜라주가되었다. 인도의 엄수 된 북서쪽 국경은 다시 기원전 200 년부터 시작된 일련의 침략자들을 끌어 들였다. 아리아 인들이 행했던 것처럼, 침략자들은 "인디애나"가되었다. 정복과 정착의 과정에서 또한이시기는 문화적 확산과 혼합주의에서 영감을받은 뛰어난 지적 예술적 업적을 목격했습니다. 북서부의 인도 - 그리스인 또는 박트리아 인들은 수령 학의 발전에 기여했다. 중앙 아시아의 대초원 인 Shakas (또는 Scythians)는 인도 서부에 정착했다. 몽고의 내륙 초원에서 강요당한 다른 유목민 인 유에 지 (Yuezhi)는 인도 북서쪽에서 Shakas를 몰아 내고 Kushana Kingdom (기원전 -1 세기 기원 1 세기)을 설립했다. 쿠샤 나 왕국은 아프가니스탄과이란의 일부를 통제했으며 인도에서는 북서쪽의 푸루 샤 푸라 (Purshapapar, 파키스탄)에서 동쪽의 바라나시 (Uttar Pradesh)까지, 그리고 남쪽의 산치 (Madhya Pradesh)까지 뻗어있었습니다. 짧은 기간 동안, 그 왕국은 Pataliputra로 더 먼 동쪽에 도달했습니다.

쿠사나 왕국은 인도, 페르시아, 중국, 로마 제국 간의 무역의 도가니이며 전설적인 실크로드의 중요한 부분을 통제했습니다. 78 년 경부터 시작하여 20 년 동안 통치했던 카니 시카 (Kanishka)는 가장 주목할만한 쿠샤 나 통치자였다. 그는 불교로 개종했고 카시미르에서 위대한 불교 협의회를 소집했다. Kushanas는 Gandharan 예술의 후원자, 그리스와 인도 작풍 사이 합성, 및 Sanskrit 문학이었다. 그들은 주후 78 년 샤카 (Shaka)라는 새로운 시대를 열었고, 1957 년 3 월 22 일에 인도에서 공식적으로 시민의 목적으로 인정 된 달력은 여전히 ​​사용되고 있습니다.

DECCAN & amp; 남쪽.

쿠사나 왕조 (Kushana Dynasty) 동안 원주민 인 사타 바 하나 왕국 (기원전 1 세기부터 BC 3 세기)은 인도 남부의 데칸 (Deccan)에서 상승했다. 사다 바 하나 또는 안드라 왕국은 마우리 족 정치 모델의 영향을 많이 받았다. 비록 권력이 지방 수장들에게 분산되어 있었는데, 수령들은 베다 종교의 상징을 사용하고 varnashramadharma를지지했다. 그러나 통치자들은 Ellora (Maharashtra)와 Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) 같은 절충주의의 가부장적 인 불교 기념물이었다. 따라서 Deccan은 정치, 무역 및 종교적 아이디어가 북쪽에서 남쪽으로 퍼질 수있는 다리 역할을했습니다.

더 남쪽은 세 개의 고대 타밀 왕국 - 서쪽의 Chera, 동쪽의 Chola 및 남쪽의 Pandya - 지역 우월주의를 얻기위한 internecine 전쟁에 자주 참여했습니다. 그들은 그리스어와 아쇼 칸 어원에서 Mauryan 제국의 변두리에 누워있는 것으로 언급됩니다. 톨 카피 야르 (Tolkappiyar)의 타밀 문법 매뉴얼 인 톨 카피 엄 (Tolkappiam)을 비롯한 상암 (아카데미) 저작물로 알려진 고대 타밀 문학 작품은 주전 300 년부터 사회 생활에 대한 많은 유용한 정보를 제공합니다. 아리안 전통에 의해 북쪽에서 주로 토착 Dravidian 문화로 전이하는 명백한 증거가있다.

Dravidian 사회 질서는 Brahmans가 초기 단계에서 높은 지위를 가지고 있었지만 Aryan varna 패러다임보다는 다른 ecoregions에 기반을 두었다. 사회의 세분은 19 세기에 살아남은 모계와 모계의 승계 - 사촌 간 결혼과 강한 지역 정체성으로 특징 지어졌다. 부족 족장들은 "왕"으로 등장했다. 사람들이 목가적 인 것에서 농업으로 옮겨 가면서, 강을 기반으로 한 관개, 작은 규모의 탱크 (인조 연못은 인도에서라고 부름)와 우물, 로마와 동남아시아와의 해양 무역이 활발해지면서 지속되었다.

여러 사이트에있는 로마 금화 발견은 외부 세계와의 광범위한 남 인디언 연결을 증명합니다. 북동부의 Pataliputra와 북서쪽의 Taxila (현대 파키스탄)와 마찬가지로, Pandyan 수도 (현대 타밀 나두 (Tamil Nadu)에서) 인 Madurai시는 지적 및 문학 활동의 중심지였습니다. 시인과 시인은 연속 콩코드에서 왕실의 후원하에 거기에서 모였으며 대부분은 잃어버린시의 선집을 작곡했다. 기원전 1 세기 말까지 남아시아는 육로 무역로에 의해 십자가에 처져 불교도와 자이나교 선교사와 다른 여행자들의 움직임을 촉진 시켰고이 지역을 많은 문화의 종합으로 개방했다.

갓타 & amp; HARSHA.

고전 시대는 북 인도의 대부분이 굽타 제국 (약 320-550)으로 통일 된시기를 가리 킵니다. 이 기간 동안 상대적인 평화, 법과 질서, 그리고 광범위한 문화적 업적으로 인해, 그것은 "황금 시대"라고 묘사되었습니다. 그것은 그 다양성, 모순, 종합 성을 모두 갖춘 힌두 문화로 일반적으로 알려진 요소들을 결정화 시켰습니다. 황금 시대는 북쪽에만 국한되었으며, 고전적인 패턴은 굽타 제국이 역사적인 장면에서 사라진 후에야 남쪽으로 퍼지기 시작했습니다.

Chandragupta I (ca. 319-335), Samudragupta (ca. 335-376), Chandragupta II (ca. 376-415)는 처음 세 지도자의 군사적 착취로 모든 북 인도를 리더십으로 이끌었다. 그들의 수도 인 파 탈리 푸트 라 (Pataliputra)에서, 그들은 실용주의와 현명한 결혼 동맹으로 군대의 힘으로 정치적 탁월성을 유지하려고 노력했다. 자기 수여 표제에도 불구하고, 그들의 지배권은 위협 받았고 500 명은 궁극적으로 인도로 끌어온 인종적으로나 문화적으로 다른 외부인들의 연속적인 그룹 인 Hunas (중앙 아시아에서 유포 된 White Huns의 한 분파)에 의해 망쳐졌다. 하이브리드 인디언 패브릭으로 짠

Harsha Vardhana (또는 Harsha, r. 606-47)에서 북부 인도는 잠깐 재결합되었지만 Guptas도 Harsha도 중앙 집권 국가를 통제하지 못했으며, 그들의 행정 스타일은 지역 및 지방 관리들의 협력에 달려있다. 중앙에서 지명 된 요원에게. Gupta 시대는 인도 문화의 유역을 나타 냈습니다. Guptas는 그들의 규칙을 정당화하기 위해 베다 희생을 치렀습니다. 그러나 그들은 또한 브라만 적 정설의 대안을 제공하는 불교를 후원했습니다.

그러나이시기의 가장 중요한 업적은 종교, 교육, 수학, 미술, 산스크리트 문헌 및 드라마에있었습니다. 현대 힌두교로 발전한 종교는 주요 종파 신, 이미지 숭배, 경건주의, 그리고 성전의 중요성과 같은 구성 요소의 결정화를 목격했습니다. 교육에는 문법, 구성, 논리, 형이상학, ​​수학, 의학 및 천문학이 포함됩니다. 이러한 주제는 고도로 전문화되어 고급 수준에 도달했습니다.

인도의 숫자 체계 - 때로는 인도에서 유럽으로 옮겨져 로마 체계를 대체 한 아랍인들에게 잘못 인도 된 - 및 십진법은이시기의 인도 발명품입니다. 또한 499 년에 일어난 Aryabhatta의 천문학 박람회는 태양계와 아스트랄 체의 모양과 움직임을 현저한 정확도로 계산했습니다. 의학에서 Charaka와 Sushruta는 그리스의 Hippocrates와 Galen의 시스템을 닮은 완전히 진화 된 시스템에 관해 썼습니다. 생리학 및 생물학의 발전은 해부학 및 해부학을 방해하는 시체와의 접촉에 대한 종교적 금지 명령으로 인해 어려움을 겪었지 만 인도 의사는 약전, 제왕 절개, 뼈 고정 및 피부 이식에 뛰어났습니다.

남부 라이벌.

굽타 붕괴가 완료되었을 때 문명의 고전적 패턴은 중부 Ganga 계곡과 구타 (Gupta) 서거의 뒤꿈치 에서뿐만 아니라 데칸 (Deccan)과 인도 남부에서 번성하여 역사상 가장 눈에 띄는 장소를 획득했다. . 사실, 7 세기 중반부터 13 세기 중반까지 지역주의는 남아시아의 정치 또는 왕조 역사의 지배적 인 주제였습니다. 정치 과학자 Radha Champakalakshmi가 지적한 바와 같이이 세 가지 특징은 일반적으로이시기의 사회 정치적 현실을 특성화합니다. 첫째, 브라만 종교의 확산은 지역 숭배의 산스크리트 화와 브라만 식 사회 질서의 국지화라는 양방향 과정이었다. 두 번째는 나중에 지역 제도와 정치 발전을 지배했던 브라만 제사장과 토지 소유 집단의 지배였다. 셋째, 다년간의 군사적 공격에서 살아남을 수있는 수많은 왕조가 시위를 벌 였기 때문에 지역 왕국은 자주 패배했지만 거의 전멸하지는 않았습니다.

인도 반도는 Vatapi의 Chalukyas (556-757), Kanchipuram의 Pallavas (300-888), Madurai의 Pandyas (7 번째에서 10 세기까지) 사이의 8 세기 삼국 간 권력 투쟁에 관여했다. Chalukya 통치자들은 부하들에 의해 753에서 973으로 통치 된 Rashtrakutas에 의해 전복되었다. Pallava와 Pandya 왕국 모두 적 이었지만 정치 지배를위한 진정한 투쟁은 Pallava와 Chalukya 영역 사이였다.

지역간 갈등에도 불구하고, 지방 자치는 수세기 동안 지배적이었던 남부에서 훨씬 더 많이 보존되었다. 고도로 중앙 집권 된 정부가 없다는 것은 마을과 행정부의 관리에서 상응하는 지방 자치와 관련이있다. 광범위하고 잘 문서화 된 육상 및 해상 무역은 서부 해안과 동남아시아의 아랍인들과 함께 번영했습니다. 무역은 동남아시아의 문화 확산을 촉진 시켰는데, 지역 엘리트들은 인도 예술, 건축, 문학 및 사회 관습을 선별하지만 기꺼이 받아 들였습니다.

데칸 (Deccan)과 남인도 (South India)의 통치자들은 불교, 힌두교, 자이나교의 3 가지 종교 모두를 후원했다. 그러나 서로의 영토에 대한 계급 간 경쟁과 계절적 공습. 종교는 토지 보조금으로 표현되었지만 더 중요한 것은 기념비적 인 성전 건축에있어 왕실의 호의로 서로 경쟁했다. 건축 경이로 남아있다. 엘본타 섬 (봄베이 근처, 마라 티의 뭄바이), 아잔타 (Ajanta), 엘로라 (마하라 슈트라), 그리고 타밀 나두 (Tamil Nadu)의 칸치 푸람 (Kanchipuram)의 구조 사원은 그 밖의 지역 통치자들의 전쟁 유산을 견디고 있습니다. 7 세기 중반 경, 불교와 자이나교는 종파 간 힌두교 신앙인 시바 (Shiva)와 비슈누 (Vishnu)가 대중의지지를 얻기 위해 적극적으로 경쟁하면서 하락하기 시작했다.

산스크리트어는 인도 남부에서의 학습과 신학의 언어 였지만 북쪽에 있었던 것처럼 바ti 티 (신앙 운동) 운동의 성장은 타밀족, 텔루구 어, 말라야 람어, 칸나다어 등 4 대 Dravidian 언어 모두에서 토착어 문학의 결정화를 강화시켰다. ; 그들은 종종 산스크리트어에서 주제와 어휘를 빌려 왔지만 많은 지역 문화적 전설을 보존했습니다. 타밀 사람 문학의보기는 2 개의 중요한시, Cilappatikaram (보석상), Manimekalai (보석 된 벨트)를 포함한다; Shaivism과 Vaishnavism의 경건한 문학의 몸 - 힌두교 신앙 운동; 그리고 12 세기에있는 Kamban에 의한 Ramayana의 재 작업. 남아시아의 여러 지역에서 최소한의 공통된 특징을 지닌 전국적인 문화적 통합이 이루어졌지만, 문화 유입 및 동화 과정은 수세기 동안 인도의 역사를 형성하고 영향을 줄 것입니다.

자세히 알아보십시오.

광고.

우리가 더 많이 쓸 수있게 도와주세요.

우리는 소수의 자원 봉사자가 운영하는 소규모 비영리 단체입니다. 각 기사는 역사 서적에서 원본 자료와 편집 및 서버 비용으로 약 50 달러가 소요됩니다. 한 달에 5 달러 정도면 더 많은 무료 기사를 만들 수 있도록 도와 드리며 광고없는 경험을 해드립니다. 멤버가되다.

추천 도서.

서지.

이 일을 인용하십시오.

의회, L. O. (2011, 12 월 15 일). 고대 인도의 역사. 고대 역사 백과 사전. ancient. eu/article/294/에서 가져온

시카고 스타일.

의회, 도서관 O. "고대 인도의 역사" 고대 역사 백과 사전. 2011 년 12 월 15 일 최종 수정. ancient. eu/article/294/.

의회, 도서관 O. "고대 인도의 역사" 고대 역사 백과 사전. 고대 역사 백과 사전, 2011 12 월 15 일. 웹. 2017 년 12 월 14 일.

위의 공개 도메인 콘텐츠는 의회 도서관에서 가져온 것입니다. 자유롭게 복사 할 수 있습니다. 의회 도서관 원본 기사. Jan van der Crabben (2011 년 12 월 15 일, 다음 라이센스 : 공개 도메인)에 게시 됨. 이 항목은 공개 된 것으로 제한없이 사용, 복사 및 수정할 수 있습니다.

광고.

광고.

우리의 가게를 방문하십시오.

광고.

교부금 및 후원금.

교부금이나 스폰서 십을 통해 우리를 친절하게 도와 준 단체들에게 많은 감사를드립니다.

우리는 다음 기관들과 공동의 목표를 추구하기 위해 적극적인 파트너십을 맺고 있습니다.

수색.

기부하십시오.

계정.

영국에 등록 된 비영리 단체 인 고대사 백과 사전 (Ancient History Encyclopedia Limited)의 판권 소유 (2009-2017).

고대사 백과 사전 로고는 등록 된 EU 상표입니다.

고대 인도 경제.

인더스 문명의 경제 고대 인도 경제의 모습은 베다 시대에 개발 된 인더스 계곡 문명과 갠지스 강의 문명에서 확인할 수 있습니다. 다양한 인더스 사이트의 발굴 작업이 그 당시 번성했던 도시 경제를 엿볼 수있게 해주는 반면, 베다 시대의 유적과 기록을 통해 우리는 당시 경제의 모습을 보여줍니다.

인더스 계곡 문명의 고대 인도 경제.

인더스 계곡 문명은 청동기 시대의 것이었고 그 경제는 도시 기반이었고 베다 문명은 철기 시대로 표시되었으므로 경제는 농업 생산 방식과 더 관련이 있습니다.

고고학자들은 인더스 계곡 문명 동안 해외 무역의 중요성을 나타내는 Lothal의 해안 도시에 거대한 준설선 운하와 도킹 시설을 발견했습니다. 인더스 문명의 경제는 수송 기술의 주요 발전에 의해 촉진되었던 무역에 크게 의존 한 것으로 보인다.

인 테루스 계곡 경제를 번식시키는 데 사용되는 보트와 수소의 테라코타 인형. 보트의 인형 중 상당수는 작고 평평한 바닥 공예로, 아마도 항해로 움직일 수 있습니다. 대형 해상 기술에 대한 증거도 있습니다. 수소 수송 장바구니의 수치는 내륙 무역에서 교통 수단으로 사용되는 것을 가리 킵니다.

인더스 문명의 유물이 분산됨에 따라 무역 네트워크는 경제적으로 아프가니스탄의 일부, 페르시아의 해안 지역, 인도 북부와 중부 및 메소포타미아를 포함한 거대한 지역을 통합했다.

수메르 (Sumer)와 수메르 (Sumerian) 상인들과 거래 된 인더스 계곡 문명의 사람들은 그들을 멜루 하 (Meluhha)라고 불렀다. 그들은 또한 메소포타미아와 이집트와 거래했다. 그들은 페르시아 만 (Persian Gulf)의 틸문 (Tilmun) 섬으로 상선을 보냈습니다.

수소 수송 카트 주요 수출 품목에는 과립, 도자기 화병, 상감기, 상아 빗, 진주, 귀중한 목재 및 반 귀석이 포함되었습니다. 인더스 계곡의 농민들은 밀, 보리, 들장미, 참외, 참깨 및 날짜를 ​​재배했습니다. 그들은 또한 고비로운 가축, 짧은 경적 가축, 버팔로, 그리고 아마도 돼지, 낙타, 말, 당나귀까지도 길들였다. 땅은 물소, 호랑이, 코끼리, 코뿔소 및 거대한 숲으로 가득했습니다.

코튼은 기원전 2000 년경에 처음 개발되었습니다. 인더스 계곡 사람들은 처음으로면을 털실로 만들고 직물을 천으로 짜는 사람들이었습니다. 공공 비문이나 기록 된 역사 문서의 부족은 인더스 계곡 문명의 경제에 대한 더 많은 정보를 방해했습니다. 400 개의 상징적 인 그림으로 구성된 독특한 Indus 스크립트는 아직 해독되지 않았습니다.

베다 시대의 고대 인도 경제.

아리안 인들은 기원전 1500 년까지 중앙 아시아에서 인도 북부로 들어갔다. 아리안들은 갠지스 강 유역에 새로운 경제의 빛을 다시 불 태웠다. 아리아 인 사회는 유목 생활과 가축 사육이 주요 직종으로 특징 지어졌습니다. 소와 젖소는 높은 존경심을 가지고 개최되었으며 Rigvedic 찬송가에 자주 등장합니다. 여신은 종종 소와 비교되고, 신들은 황소와 비교됩니다.

아리아 인은 기원전 1,000 년까지 철분을 사용하는 법을 배웠고 지역 공동체가 정착하면서 농업이 중요시되었다. 아리아 인은 계속해서 농부가되었습니다. 그들은 600 년경 벼농사를 재배하는 것을 배웠습니다. 농사 활동으로 인해 질서 정연하고 정착 된 사회가 진화했습니다.

사회는 카스트 제도에 엄격히 조직되었고 경제 구조는 카스트의 노동 분업을 유지했다. 아리아 인은 제사장, 통치자, 전사, 농민 및 상인이되었지만 Shudra라고하는 원주민에게는 낮은 순위가 남았습니다. 직업은 4 명의 주요 바르나, 브라만, 크샤 트리아, 바이 시야 및 슈드라를 기반으로했다.

The food of the Rigvedic Aryans consisted of parched grain and cakes, milk and milk products, and various fruits and vegetables.

Families were patrilineal Consumption of meat was also common among, at least among the upper classes. The Rigveda contains many references to animal sacrifice and meat offered to the gods.

The people in the Vedic period lived in straw and wooden huts. Some homes during the epics period were made of wood. They also introduced horse and chariot races. The social life cantered on Yagna meaning s a ritual of sacrifice.

Money was unknown, and bartering with cattle and other valuables was the favoured way of conducting trade and commerce.

With a more settled and ordered society trade and commerce started to flourish. Life in towns evolved again and writing was re-invented. By 600 BC a highly civilized society had emerged in India with its economy based on rural mode of production and its surplus being exported through trade and commercial activities.

고대 무역이 세상을 변화시킨 방법.

매주 월요일, 이 칼럼은 역사 속에서 발견 된 역사, 역사 및 사건에 영향을 미치는 사람들을 탐구하기 위해 역사 속의 한 페이지를 보여줍니다.

내 목걸이에 필요한 금메달이 있고 가운에 필요한 실크가있어.

요즘엔 뭔가 필요한 것이 있으면 가장 가까운 쇼핑몰에 가서 몇 달러를 내고 집으로 향합니다. 수천년 전에이 프로세스는 거의 단순하지 않았습니다. If you or someone in your town didn't grow it, herd it or make it, you needed to abandon that desire or else travel for it, sometimes over great distances. 많은 도시에서 무역 노력은 너무 심했습니다. 그 고대 도시들은 역사 책에서 드문 모습을 나타냅니다.

그러나 첫 번째 문명이 약 5 천년 전에 서로 거래를 시작했을 때, 많은 사람들이 부유하고 도박을당했습니다.

무역은 인간 상호 작용에 대한 보탬이되었으며, 문화적 접촉을 완전히 새로운 차원으로 끌어 올렸다.

사람들이 처음 메소포타미아와 이집트의 더 큰 도시로 정착했을 때, 자급 자족 & ndash; 당신이 원하거나 필요로하는 모든 것을 절대적으로 생산해야한다는 생각; 퇴색하기 시작했다. 농부는 이제 멀리 떨어져 있지 않은 현지 시장에서 곡물이나 냄비 용 곡물을 교환 할 수 있습니다.

도시는 기후와 천연 자원이 다른 것을 만들어내는 멀리 떨어진 다른 도시에서 가지고 있지 않은 물건을 얻을 수 있다는 것을 깨닫고 똑같은 방식으로 작동하기 시작했습니다. 이 장거리 교역은 느리고 종종 위험했지만, 여행을하고자하는 중매인에게는 유리했습니다.

최초의 장거리 교역은 메소포타미아와 기원전 3000 년경 파키스탄의 인더스 계곡 사이에서 발생했다고 역사가들은 믿는다. 이 초기 시대의 장거리 교역은 거의 독점적으로 향신료, 섬유 및 귀금속과 같은 명품으로 제한되었습니다. 이 농산물이 풍부한 도시들은 재정적으로 부유 해져 보석, 고급 예복 및 수입 식품에 대한 다른 주변 지역의 식욕을 만족 시켰습니다.

그 무역 네트워크가 유라시아 대륙 전체를 십자가에 매달고 지나간 지 오래지 않아서 역사상 처음으로 문화를 연결 짓지는 않았습니다.

기원전 2 천년 경에 전 (前) 수위의 섬 키프로스 (Cyprus)는 광활한 구리 자원을 근동 및 이집트, 즉 파피루스와 양모와 같은 천연 자원으로 인해 부유 한 지역으로 운반함으로써 주요 지중해 플레이어가되었습니다. 항해 관련 전문 기술로 유명한 페니키아는 지중해 전역에 삼나무 목재와 린넨 염료를 판매했습니다. 중국은 비취, 향료 및 나중에 실크를 거래함으로써 번영했습니다. 영국은 풍부한 양의 주석을 공유했습니다.

적절한 도로가없는 상황에서 물건을 한 장소에서 다른 장소로 운송하는 가장 효율적인 방법은 바다였습니다.

The first and most extensive trade networks were actually waterways like the Nile, the Tigris and the Euphrates in present-day Iraq and the Yellow River in China. 도시는 그 강가의 경계에있는 비옥 한 대야에서 자랐으며, 물 고속도로를 이용하여 물건을 수입하고 수출함으로써 확장되었습니다.

기원전 1000 년경의 낙타 가축은 캐러반이라고 불리는 육상의 무역로를 장려하고 인도를 지중해와 연결 시켰습니다. 와일드 웨스트 프론티어의 고대 버전처럼 도시는 구덩이 정류장이나 캐러밴 대 우주선이 필요했던 곳과는 전혀 다른 곳 에서처럼 돋아 나기 시작했습니다. 로마와 그리스의 더 잘 알려진 위성 도시 중 많은 곳이 이러한 방식으로 설립되었으며 영향력이 대륙을 횡단 할 때까지 전설적인 제국을 추가로 확장했습니다.

그리고이 장소들 각각에서 외국 상인들은 항구 도시에서 술을 마셨고 집 뒤에서 이야기와 관습을 나누었습니다. 단지 소포 이상을 남겨 두었습니다.

지난 주 : 글쓰기가 세상을 바꾸는 방법.

Heather Whipps는 Live Science의 역사, 인류학 및 건강에 관해 씁니다. John Abbott College에서 사회 과학 대학 학위를, McGill University에서 인류학 예술 학사 학위를 받았다. 그녀는 르완다의 산 고릴라들과 함께 하이킹을 해왔고, 열정적 인 운동 선수이자 특히 그녀가 가장 좋아하는 아이스 하키 팀 인 몬트리올 캐나 디 언스입니다. 오, 그래, 그녀는 파파야가 싫어.

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TRADE & COMMERCE IN ANCIENT INDIA.

India has had a maritime history dating back to around 4,500 years, since the Indus Valley Civilization. The impetus to later re-develop maritime links was trade (primarily in cotton, pepper and other spices), due to the monopoly of the Persians and later the Arabs over land-based caravan routes. The later maritime journeys spread the influence of ancient and medieval Indian civilisation as far as the islands ofIndonesia to the east, the islands of Japan to the north, and the east coast of Africa to the west.

The Jatakas refer to eighteen important handicrafts and industries.

Proper rules of conduct of trade were laid by the head of trade guilds, known as Sarthavaha or Srenipramukha. The rules were called Samay and Srenidharma.

Taxila, Pushkalavati, Kapisa and Vidisha prospered as trade centres, under the Indo-Greek rulers.

Kautilya asked the king to develop measures to stop obstruction of the trade routes by his favourite men (vallabhas). Frontier guards (Antapalas) were also appointed.

Guilds of merchants were proper-ly registered and even served as banks.

Ships in ancient period were usually of the two-masted type. In the 2nd century A. D., a regular sea-route was in operation for the quest for gold (swarna).

Monsoons (Arabic: Mausam) were discovered by Hippalus (Greek captain) and this discovery in 45 A. D. that mon-soons could sail ships from Alexandria to Western India in just a 40-days period, tremendously increased the Roman sea-trade, due to shortening of trade-route.

Muziris (Cranganore, Kerala) and Puhar (in Cholamandalam) were major sea-ports and foreign settlements.

Muziris, as shown in the Tabula Peutingeriana.

Among land-routes, the silk-route was very often in use till Kushan period. Later period saw it becomming unsafe, due to robbers.

The Periplus of Erythrean Sea is a travellers handbook (Erythrean Sea, Red sea). It mentions more than 20 trade ports like: Barygaza (Broach), Suppara (Soparal), Kalliena (Kalyana), Muziris (Kerala), Soptama (Madras), Puhar (Tamilnadu), Masalia (Masulipatnam).

The important exports from India were: Fine textiles, Malabathrum (spicy leaves), muslins , pepper, ivory and many others.

Pepper was a very valuable export till 13th century A. D. Marco Polo (Italy) mentions that a ship was measured by the number of pepper baskets contained in it. Among spices, pepper always held the first place and was declared passion of the Yavanas (Romans).

In his plays, Kalidas potraits a good view of the town markets and trade transactions.

Roman emperor Aurelian declared Indian silk to be its worth in gold. Indians acted as intermediaries to the Chinese silk trade and the Western States.

The demand for Roman goods was smaller than that of Indian goods abroad and it suffered an adverse trade balance of trade. To make up this balance, the Romans supplied gold and silver coins to India. This ever-increasing drain of wealth was once complained by the emperor Tiberious (22 A. D.). The author Pliny also laments such losses.

The Kushanas remoulded the Roman coins so that they could be used as currency. Among imports, there were singing boys, virgins for the rulers harem, slaves and valuable corals (Mediterranean Red Variety), dates, Italian vases and wines, sweet clovers, glass, tin (Spain), emeralds, etc.

The Divyavadana refers to the science of testing gems. The merchants sons were trained in 64 Angavidyas or finearts, according to Vatsyayana.

Rome, the Chief importer of Indian muslin, once banned it, due to the rising loss of morals of its females.

India obtained brass, lead and gold from foreigners, whereas Indian iron and steel (saikya ayas) was very advanced in quality and was exported.

Charaksamhita (on Indian tradi-tional medicine and surgery) recommends the use of saikya ayas for operations.

Nasik cave inscription tells that srenis often acted as law providers also. (Sresthis, are now called as Seths, Settis in South India and also Chettiyars).

Rate of interest fluctuated greatly, but was usually near 15% (higher for loans for sea-trade). The common coins were: Nishka and Pala of Gold, Shatmana of silver, Kakini of copper and brass. The most common coin Karshapana was made of various metals.

Textiles formed a major industry in this period.

India imported horses from Arabia and Iran.

Ujjain was the most flourishing trade center in and around the Gupta period.

Right from ancient times till the establishment of the British Empire, India was famed for her fabulous wealth. Even during the medieval period, i. e. roughly from the 12th to the 16th centuries, the country was prosperous despite the frequent political upheavals.

Ancient South Indian Commerce(BY SRIMATI V. T. LAKSHMI)

There are ample sources of information, supplying authentic material for the construction of a short history of South Indian International commerce in ancient times; and they may be arranged under the usual following heads: (1) archaeological evidences, which include monuments, buildings and works of art; (2) inscriptional or epigraphic evidences; (3) linguistic or evidence of words, adduced by the similarity in origin and of sounds; (4) religious treatises; (5) purely literary works, containing hidden historical allusions and references; (6) coins or numismatic evidence; (7) traditions, as recorded in literature and in verbal circulation; (8) the recent ethnological researches of great value and importance; and (9) ancient and modern historical writings, consisting of almost all the accounts, left by foreigners and native historians.

All these original authorities for the early history of South India and her international commercial enterprises need a careful examination.

Let us take the archaeological evidence for scrutiny. A scientific examination of buildings, monuments and works of art throw much light upon the South Indian early commerce and her civilisation. The Obelisks of Shalmeneser III, bearing figures of Indian elephants and apes, proved ancient trade connections between India and Babylonia in or about 860 B. C. The temple of the moon at Mugheir (the "Ur of the Chaldees") and the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, belonging to the sixth century B. C. contain a number of pillars and beams, made of teak wood, a native product of India, and confirm that the trade in teak wood flourished between India and Barygaza and Euphrates, in the early days; and the tombs of Egypt reveal the presence of indigo, tamarind wood and such other products, and they un - mistakably speak of the earliest trace of South Indias commercial intercourse with Egypt.

As regards the inscriptional evidences, we should say that they form the most important and reliable source of our knowledge of the early commercial history of South India. In fact, the earliest trade relations between Assyria and India are revealed by the Cuneiform Inscriptions of the Hittite Kings of Mitani, in Cappadocia, belonging to the fifteenth or fourteenth century B. C. The Nimrud Inscriptions of the Assyrian King, Tiglath Pileser III, referring to the Indian exports of the day, like spices and clothing, as having been received in Assyria as tributes from a King, by name Yakim; and the Egyptian Inscriptions of the Queen Hatshepsust, recording the monarchs expedition to Punt and the booty of cinnamon wood are very important evidence relating to South Indian international connections with the rest of the world.

Next, we proceed to the linguistic source of information. Similarity or resemblance between various words, the names of commercial products, prevalent in different countries, to some extent, adduce proof of their ancient commercial relations for example, the Hebrew word "shen habbin" for ivory, a literal translation of the Sanskrit "ibha danta"; the Egyptian word "kafu" for ape, from the Sanskrit word "kapi"; the Balylonian word "sindu" for muslin, from the Dravidian word "sindhi"; the Indian word "sini" for sugar given to it, as it was imported from China.

While examining the next important species of evidence, religious treatises, we should divide and study them under three heads: Hindu, Buddhist and Christian sacred works. Taking first the Hindu treatises into consideration, we find that the Vedic Mantras contain many allusions to sea-voyages undertaken by Indians perhaps chiefly by South Indians. "Mahabharata" mentions Yudishtara of the Pancha Pandavas having received Chinese silk, as tribute, from China, in the second millennium B. C.; while the Buddhist "Jataka Stories" (e. g. Baberu Jataka) narrate Indian merchants, presumably South Indian merchants, having taken periodical voyages to the land of Babylon (Balylonis). Lastly, comes the Christian sacred literature: a reference to ebony, an Indian article of trade is found in "Ezekiel" XXVII. 13, having been a commodity in the trade of Tyre; a similar reference to cinnamon having become one of the ingredients of the sacred anointing oil of the Hebrew priests, in "Exodus" XXX and a specific mention in the Book of Genesis relating to the Indian merchants going to Egypt to trade doubtless establish South Indian commercial relations with Palestine and Egypt in the ancient times.

Proceeding to the ancient Indian literature, containing many historical facts and truths, as a significant source of information, we find that the classical Puranic literature of India, like "Tholkapyam," contain several allusions to the Roman settlements and their occupations under various Tamil kings. We have also numerous Egyptian records of the receipt of several articles like ivory in commerce and as tribute under the seventh dynasty 1580-1350 B. C.

Next, we may examine tradition as a very valuable source of information. Traditions, as recorded in Literature and as they are current in mere "verbal circulation" constitute, indeed, a chief supplier of some important historical information. The Queen Hatshepsusts expedition and Queen Shebas meeting with King Solomon and the fabulous tributes that the former gave the latter indicate an extensive trade between Egypt and India even in the tenth century B. C., and also the kinds of articles that Egypt and India exchanged in commerce.

As regards the ethnological sources from the face-type of the average Indian of today and a strong resemblance which exists between the ethnic type of the Sumerians marked strongly in their statues and to the Dravidian ethnic type of the average Indian, H. R. Hall concludes that a South Indian tribe should have migrated and settled in Sumeria. Likewise, there are other ethnological facts which throw much light upon ancient South Indian commerce with the rest of the progressive countries.

Lastly, we should examine the historical accounts left behind by several of the ancient and modern writers of history. The accounts of the ancient Greek writers like Herodotus, Homer. Aristophanes, and Sophocles, the great and valuable Chinese Annals, the diary of the German scholar, Buhler, the interesting writings of the Roman historians, Strabo and Pliny, and, last but not least, the modern historical; treatises of the celebrated English historians. H. R. Hall, Mommsen, Warmington, Sewell and Smith and a host of others all these give us practically true and valuable information regarding the ancient maritime and international relations that existed between ancient South India and the rest of the known and progressive world, as well as an account of the flourishing ports of South India.

It is a geographical fact that the coastal line of South India is not even, and so there must have been the possibility of the formation and establishment of many ports in the peninsular South India in ancient times. The great author of the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, in his Guide-book to the Indian Ocean, writes about these South Indian ports. Among others, he mentions India, Musiri, and Comari (Cape Comorin). He also speaks of Colchi (Korkai), Camara, Poduka, Sopatma, Kodikkaraim, Negapatam, Nelkynda and Kaviri Paddinam. All these ports were in excellent and flourishing condition. Either they played the role of important stations of imports and exports or they served merely as calling stations. These ports were owned by one or other of three important Tamil Kings, Colchi or Korkai, whose pearl fisheries were carried on on a large scale, belonged to the Pandyan Kingdom. Camara, Poduka and Sopatma were "Sola" ports; Kodikkarai, Negapatam and Kavari Paddinam also belonged to the Cholas, while Musiri and Nelkynda were the ports of Chera Kings. These various South Indian ports, favourably situated as they were, facilitated South Indian trade with the rest of the world, in the pre-historic and later ages.

It must be remembered that as far back as in the fourth milliennium B. C., when the most civilised countries of today were steeped in darkness, South India was a flourishing country in civilisation and commerce. In fact, trade began in South India as a matter of necessity. "Her geographical features helped her to become a commercial country." Says a historian, that as a large part of the Tamil peninsular India is near the sea, the knowledge of easy sea-travels and the comparatively rich commercial animal, mineral and agricultural products of the same naturally tempted the inhabitants of the coastal districts, called "Baradavar" or sailors, to take to sea-travels and to contract commercial relations with other countries. We have reasons to believe that South Indian sailors sailed along, hugging the shores, up to Afghanistan and Persia, from very early times. Excessive travels, both by land and sea, in the very ancient times, could have made possible the colonisation of the Mesopotamian Valley by the South Indians by the Tamils which, according to a recent theory, gave birth to the ancient Sumerian civilisation of that region. H. R. Hall says: "The ethnic type of Sumerians, so strongly marked in their statues and reliefs, was as different from those of the races which surrounded them as was their language from those of the Semites, Aryans or others; they were decidedly Indian in type." The face type of the average Indian today is just the same as that of his Dravidian ancestors, years ago. And, according to H. R. Hall, "it is to this ethnic type of India that the ancient Sumerian bears most resemblance, so far as we can judge from his monuments."He was very much like a Southern Hindu of the Deccan." It is quite improbable that the Sumerians were an Indian tribe which migrated to the valley of the two rivers, through Persia, by land and perhaps by sea, as well. It recently was proved that in Baluchistan there exists a Dravidian population, "the Brahuis"; the Dravidian type is noted in Southern Persia; and perhaps, the non-Aryan people of ancient Persia were of the Dravidian race, who formed connection between Babylonia and India. The legends of Oannes-Man-fish swimming up the Persian Gulf to the earliest Sumerian cities, like Eridu, denote an early maritime relationship between Sumeria and India which was by then a civilised land. It would not be too much to presume that the Sumerian culture was developed in the Indian home. It was their writing that, later on, was adapted by Babylonia and it was the seeds of their culture that were afterwards left in Elam. Till the writings of Mohenjo Daro are definitely deciphered, nothing positive or more could be said about the South Indian trade with Sumeria.

If there was commercial intercourse between South India and Sumeria, there must have been greater intercourse between South India and Babylonia. By means of evidence. Sarce mentions two instances: in the first place, there were found in the ruins of Ur (Mugheir), pillars of Indian teak, probably South Indian teak; and it was a well-known fact that, in the fourth millennium B. C., Mugheir or Ur was the capital of the Sumerian Kings. Secondly, the word Sindhu or muslin shows a distinctly South Indian product that was to be found in an ancient Babylonian list of clothing. Mr. P. T. Sreenivasa Chary thinks that muslin should have been taken from the Tamil coast to Babylonia by sea. Passing on, we again hear of the South Indian trade with " Balyloni" in 606 B. C. during the period of the Babylonian Empire. After the fall of the Assyrian Empire, the great city of Babylon took the place of Nineveh as the centre of commerce and trade with Western India. In the crowded market of Babylonia met all the races of the world, including South Indians who went there to sell their wares. In the Baberu Jataka, Indian merchants, perhaps both South and North Indian merchants, took periodical voyages to the land of Babylon. The classical literature of South India is full of references to ships, shipping and distant voyages. There was soon established in that great town a colony of South Indian merchants, which continued to thrive till the seventh century A. D.

There is ample evidence that the trade of South India extended not only to the Mesopotamian valley, but also to Egypt in the third millennium B. C. "Thousands of years before the emergence of the Greeks from savagery. Egypt and the nations of Ancient India came into being, and a commercial system was developed for the interchange of products within those limits, having its centre of exchange near the head of the Persian Gulf. The growth of civilisation in India created an active merchant marine and trading to the Euphrates and Africa." (W. H. Schoff). The Arabs, who played the intermediaries, carried muslins and Indian spices from South Indian "Baradavars," who took those articles in their boats to Aden and the East African Coast, and carried them, in turn, to Thebes or Memphis, by sea or land. In the Book of Genesis there is mention of a company of traders with spicery and myrrh going to Egypt. In the abundant booty, loading the vessel of the Pharaoh for conveyance to the land of Egypt, appeared many South Indian animals and products not indigenous to Egypt-elephants teeth, precious stones, sandalwood and monkeys. Further, the presence of indigo, tamarind-wood and other Indian products have been detected in the tombs of Egypt; and, it is also said that the Egyptians dyed cloth with indigo and wrapped their mummies in South Indian muslin. But, the Egyptians were poor sailors, and South Indian articles found their way to Egypt through Arab and Phoenician ships. There are certain words that betray the Indian origin of articles: The Egyptian word "Ebu" like the Italian word "Ebur" may be the Sanskrit "Ibhu"; the Egyptian word "Kafu" like the Hebrew "Koph" may have come from the Sanskrit "Kapi," meaning ape. The presence of the African Baobab in the Tinnevelly District has been traced to early traders from Africa. In the Inscriptions of Harkhuf, under the Egyptian King, Memere, of the sixth Dynasty, 2,600 B. C.; there are references to several South Indian articles that found their way to Egypt: incense, ebony, grain, ivory, panthers, etc. The ebony referred to, doubtless, was South Indian ebony, which was, according to Theophrastus, "peculiar only to India." In the sixth Dynasty, under Pepi II, in the twenty sixth century B. C., references were made to South Indian cotton cloth, by an Egyptian Royal officer, Sebni. Besides, ivory was in great demand in Egypt: and considering the fact that it was easier to kill elephants in Indian forests, than in African forests, Indian ivory alone could have been largely imported to Egypt. Further, it was asserted that the Egyptian Kings used axes and swords and other iron implements, manufactured only in South India in those early times. In exchange for these articles, Egypt sent to South India incense, sweet-smelling gums, etc. The Vedic Mantras are burdened with allusions to the "interchange" of merchandise: South Indian traders must have sent their ships to sea and sailed to distant lands for sale and barter, long before North Indians took to maritime commerce. In the second millennium B. C., when the old land-route was destroyed, the tide of trade bent southward and led to a great development in the sea trade of South India. Under the seventeenth Egyptian dynasty (1580-1530 B. C.), there were several records of the receipt of ivory in trade and as tribute, which fact indicates that in the early times, ivory and ivory-articles, like chairs, tables, statues and whips, went from the west coast of India to the Nile Valley. Under the eighteenth Dynasty, great Egyptain ships fetched, from the Arab intermediaries, South Indian ebony, precious stones, ivory, gold, cinnamon, incense, apes, monkeys, dogs and panther skins. In the days of the twentieth Dynasty, under Rameses III (1198-1167 B. C.), Egypt continued to get ebony and precious stones from South India. During the hey-day of Egytian prosperity, under the twenty-eighth Dynasty, the garments of royal linen used in Egypt were considered to be of South Indian muslin. The cinnamon, which Egypt largely imported, was not an article of Punt, as it was believed, but it grew in Malabar and Cochin; and South India traded in it with the Arab intermediaries, who sold it in their turn to Egypt. Among the eastern treasures, mentioned as supplied from Punt to Egypt, were grain and gingelly oil, which, according to the Periplus, were largely exported to far off countries only from South India. The Egyptian priests underwent the "anointment" ceremony. with the "South Indian gingelly oil," and the Egytian Queen Hatshepsust got her excellent ebony only from the Malabar coast and not from Punt, as she believed!" So, trade between South India and Egypt flourished from very early times to the second millennium B. C.

A little before the end of the second millennium B. C., the Hebrews ended their servitude in Egypt and migrated to Palestine. Sweet spices were considered very holy among the Hebrews in Palestine. After Israels rise to prosperity, the Palestine trade with South India and other countries grew by leaps and bounds. South India not only imported cinnamon and sapphires to Palestine, but also all the other articles which she had been sending Egypt through the Arab intermediaries. In the tenth century B. C., we hear of Queen Shebas lavishing presents upon King Solomon: spices and precious stones, which were undoubtedly South Indian articles. "The almug trees, which are identified with sandalwood, native to South India, especially Mysore, Coimbatore and Salem Districts, and a large quantity of gold should have gone to Palestine from South India." South Indian ivory and peacocks were, among several other articles imported to Palestine. The Hebrew word for ivory" Shen habbin" resembles "Ibha danta" in Sanskrit, and the Hebrew word "Thakki" for peacock bears semblance to the Tamil word "Thogai." In Ezekiel, XXVII, 13, in the Old Testament, South Indian trade with Palestine in ebony is mentioned; it was prior to the seventh century.

It is fairly certain that there was commercial intercourse between South India and China also, in the second millennium B. C. The reference to Chinese silk having been sent to Yudhishtra of the Pancha Pandavas by the Chinese King in "Mahabharatha" and referenecs in the Chinese Annals to several voyages made to Malacca and farther by the Chinese, indicate that South India must have had some commercial dealings with China. Her chief trade was in sugar and silk, originally made in China and then imported to India. Sugar was called "Sini," a product of China: and silk was called "Sinan," foldable cloth of China. In exchange for these, China got from South India incense, red coral, costus and pepper. Recently, it has been discovered that South Indians also acted as intermediaries between China and Western Asia; and the Tamil ports served as the meeting points of the trade between the West and the East of Asia. For a long time, down to 500 B. C., we may suppose, the trade of the Malabar and Coromandel coasts with China did not languish: Chinese cardamom, for instance, continued to find its way to Western Asia and Eastern Africa by South Indian ships. Even passing on to the first century A. D., we find South Indian trade extending to China and Japan in the farthest east, beyond the small colonies of Java and Sumatra. Throughout the first and second centuries A. D., during the reigns of the Chinese Emperors, Hoti (85-105 A. D.) and Hiwanti (158-159 A. D.), there arrived in China, according to the Chinese Annals, many South Indian Embassies, with merchandise, in the name of tributes. In the sixth century A. D., there was a continued development of the maritime intercourse between China and South India. The North Indian religious missions to China, in the early times, facilitated the inter-commercial relations of China and South India, to a very great extent.

There is some evidence that there were commercial relations between South India and Arabia in the second millennium. The Arabs were good sailors and merchants. They acted as intermediaries between South Indian merchants and Western purchasers of Egypt and Palestine, in the olden days. Tactful and artful as they were, they would not reveal the Indian origin of several articles of trade to their Customers. They wished to monopolise the privilege of being intermediaries and also to keep South Indian trade in their hands. South India sent cinnamon, ivory and precious stones, pepper, ebony and sandal wood, besides her native birds and animals to Arabia, which passed them on to Egypt and Palestine in the course of trade.

The earliest trace of South Indian intercourse with Assyria can be found in the Cuneiform Inscriptions of the Hittite Kings of Mitani in Cappadocia, belonging to the fifteenth or fourteenth century B. C. These kings bore Indian names and worshipped the Vedic gods. "Assurbanipal, a great cultivator, seemed to have got South Indian plants including wool-bearing trees (cotton)." The Ninrud Inscriptions of the great Assyrian monarch, Tiglath Pileser III, mentions several articles of tribute paid by Yakim, a king of the Sea-country to "Ashur," among which many were the articles of South Indian exports of the day: pearls, spices, gold, precious stones. On the Obelisks of Shalmeneser III (860 B. C.) are the figures of apes and Indian elephants, indicating early South Indian trade with Assyria. In the markets of Tyrus, South Indian iron and steel were sold. Sennacherib (704-681 B. C.) enlarged the city of Nineveh and built a palace and a garden, where he introduced the "wool-bearing trees." Fine skins of lions, tigers and leopards, aromatics and spices and ghee and gingelly oil, in later times were also sent to Assyria by South India. South Indian teak was also in great demand is Assyria: the remnants of teak wood are found in the ruins of the temple of the Moon at Mugheir, "the Ur of the Chaldees" as well as in the ruined palace of Nebuchednazzar. Thus, South Indian trade with Assyria was both profitable and beneficial.

In 606 B, C., the Assyrian Empire was overthrown; and soon after, Babylon became the headquarters of trade in Asia. In 538 B. C., even the last of the great Semitic Empires of Western Asia came to an end with the storming of Babylon by Cyrus, the great monarch of Persia. His son, Darius helped sea trade between Persia and South India. South India might have sent, either directly or indirectly, her native commercial goods to Persia, either by land or by sea. Details of their trade relations are not available. With the break-up of the Persian Empire by Greece, South Indian trade with Persia came to an end.

Just as in the early days the Arabs served as the intermediaries between South India and the Asiatic and Semitic Empires, Greece was the greatest intermediary between South India and Europe, in the half millennium prior to the birth of Christ. As a result of this international commercial intercourse, the Hellenes borrowed several South Indian names of articles: e. g., "Oryza" for "Arisi" (price); "Karpion" for "Karova" (cinnamon); "Peperi" for "pippali"; "beryllos" for "vaidurya" (a precious stone). "In the processions of Ptolemy Philadelphus were to be found South Indian women, hunting-dogs, crows and spices! Homer referred to the black people of the Deccan and their sea-faring nature."

Ancient Indian Maritime:

인더스 밸리 문명.

The world's first tidal dock was built in Lothal around 2500 BC during the Harappan civilisation at Lothal near the present day Mangrol harbour on the Gujarat coast. Other ports were probably at Balakot and Dwarka. However, it is probable that many small-scale ports, and not massive ports, were used for the Harappan maritime trade. Ships from the harbour at these ancient port cities established trade with Mesopotamia.

Image of Calicut, India from Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlasCivitates orbis terrarum, 1572.

Maritime trade with western Asia:

Several Indian or East Asian products (e. g. Cinnamon, Cassia, Nard) are mentioned in the Bible (as early as the time of the Exodus) and by Sappho Indian products were already known in the mythical Punt and Ophir. Cinnamon and Cassia are spices that originated fromChina and South-East Asia and South India was probably along the trade routes for these products.

References in Bible.

One of the earliest references to maritime trade with India is from the Bible (I Kings 9:28) which states that King Solomon collaborated with King Hiram of Tyre/Sidon, and built a fleet at Elath and Eziongeher (or Ezion-geber). Manned by Phoenician sailors, it sailed to Ophir (also spelt as Qphir) and brought back many treasures which two kings shared between themselves. The precise location of the port of Ophir is another unsettled topic. Dutch/German Indologist Christian Lassen hoped to close the controversy in the 19th century by identifying it with Abhira in the province of Gujarat in India.

During the 4th century BC, Alexander the Great shipped the bulk of his army from North Western India to Egypt via the Indian Ocean led by his friend, Nearchus who also wrote the book, Indikê about the voyage. This was after he sailed down the Indus.

House of Ptolemy.

Around 116 BC an interesting incident that had happened in Egypt was reported by Posidonius (ca. 135 BC - 51 BC (also spelled Poseidonius), and later recorded by Strabo. We are told that a shipwrecked Indian sailor was discovered, half-dead, by coast guards on theRed Sea, and was brought to the Egyptian King Physkon (also known as Physcon or Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II) during 118 BC. The sailor said he was the sole survivor of a ship that had sailed from India. The sailor promised to guide any of the Kings navigators on a voyage toIndia. So a Greek sailor, Eudoxus of Kyzicus (himself an envoy from Greece to Ptolemy VIII), was appointed to that mission.

Poseidonius recounted two direct journeys to India. The first in 118 BC, guided by the Indian sailor, proved successful. From Berenice Harborto Muziris below Calicut took 70 days. Eudoxus returned with a cargo of aromatics and precious stones. Ptolemy VIII promptly confiscated the cargo.

The second, under the sole guidance of Eudoxus, occurred in 116 BC, just after the death of Ptolemy VIII and during the reign of Cleopatra III, his wife and queen.

A position titled, Commander of the Red and Indian Seas, came into being under Ptolemy XII, also nicknamed Auletes (80-51 BC) to encourage trade with India . The best known occupant of this office was a gentleman named, Callimachus the epistrategos, who was the Commander between July 78 BC and February 51 BC.

Roman connection.

Roman Emperor Augustus Caesar in 26 BC commissioned his prefect in Egypt, Aelius Gallus, to capture the port of Aden to attack the Ethiopians who controlled the trade from India. This was after the death of Cleopatra in 30 B. C. Although Augustus was unsuccessful in capturing Arabia Felix (present day Yemen), the Romans opened sea routes to India through the Red Sea, where they could buy Chinese silk, bypassing war-torn areas and diminishing the role of Persians and Arabs who previously dominated the trade. Greek writer, Nicolaus of Damascus records an Indian delegation from Pandion (Pandyan?) visited Emperor Augustus in 13 BC at Antioch.

Pliny complained that the Indian luxury trade was depleting the Roman treasury to the extent of 50 million sesterces annually . The Roman Senate even contemplated banning the use of Indian cotton in the clothing, Toga that Roman citizens wore, because it was so expensive to import.

The Periplus Maris Erythraei ("Circumnavigation of the Erythrean i. e., Red Sea"), by an unknown author presumed to be a Greek merchant, written in the 1st century AD, lists a series of ports along the Indian coast, including Muziris (Cranganore), Colchi (Korkai), Poduca, and Sopatma. It also records the accomplishment of Hippalus, who having determined the patterns of the Indian monsoons, discovered a sea-route from the Red Sea to Southern India. The book also references the port of Kodungallur (anglicised to Cranganore, and also known as Muziris or Shinkli), in present day Kerala on India's West coast. Pliny refers to this port as primum emporium India.

Mauryan Empire.

The earliest known reference to an organization devoted to ships in ancient India is to the Mauryan Empire from the 4th century BC. The word navigation is derived from the sanskrit word "Navgath" also. Its believed that the navigation as a science originated on the river Indus some 5000 years ago. Emperor Chandragupta Maurya's Prime Minister Kautilya's Arthashastra devotes a full chapter on the state department of waterways under navadhyaksha (Sanskrit for Superintendent of ships) . The term, nava dvipantaragamanam (Sanskrit for sailing to other lands by ships) appears in this book in addition to appearing in the Buddhist text, Baudhayana Dharmasastra as the interpretation of the term, Samudrasamyanam.

Journeys to the East and later centuries.

Indian maritime expertise helped disperse the Indian civilisation (including Hinduism and Buddhism) as far as the islands of Indonesia, Java and Sumatra.

Great cholas.

The cholas were experts in ship building, sea trade flourished under their empire with trade routes established well in south-east Asia. Further cholas also spread Hinduism in Indonesia(java) and other south-east Asian countries.

Travels of the Friar Odoric between 1316-1330 AD mention trips between the Persian Gulf, and the West coast of India.

Finally, the advent of Portuguese sailor, Vasco Da Gama in 1496 opened up the trade routes to India to the Europeans. As a result of the Battle of Swally, the Portuguese monopoly began to crumble and the rise of the British East India Company began.

Some More History.

Indians of old were keenly alive to the expansion of dominions, acquisition of wealth, and the development of trade, industry and commerce. The material prosperity they gained in these various ways was reflected in the luxury and elegance that characterized the society. Some find allusion in the Old Testament to Indian trade with Syrian coast as far back as 1400 B. C. Archaeological evidence shows that as early as the eighth century B. C., there was a regular trade relation, both by land and sea, between India on the one hand and Mesopotamia, Arabia, Phoenica, and Egypt on the other. (For more information refer to chapter on India and Egypt). The Chinese literary texts refer to maritime and trade activity between India and China as far back as the seventh century B. C. Recent excavations in Philippines, Malay Peninsula, and Indonesia confirm of early and extensive trade which continued down to the historical period. It was this naval supremacy that enabled Indians to colonize the islands in the Indian Archipelago. Shortly, after, there grew up a regular traffic between India andChina, both by land and sea. India also came in close contact with the Hellenic world. We learn from ancient authority that in the processions of Ptolemy Philadelphus (285-246 B. C.) were to be found Indian women, Indian hunting dogs, Indian cows, also Indian spices carried on camels, and that the yachts of the ruler of Egypt had a saloon lined with Indian stones. Everything indicates that there was a large volume of sea-trade between India and the western countries as far as African coast. From the coast the goods were carried by land to the Nile, and then down the river to Alexandria which was a great emporium in those days.

There was a mercantile colony of Indians in an island off the African coast in the first century A. D. The adventurous spirit of the Indians carried them even as far as the North Sea, while their caravans traveled from one end of Asia to the other.

Towards The West.

Gordon Childe says: "The most startling feature of pre-historic Indian trade is that manufactured goods made in Indiawere exported to Mesopotamia. At Eshunna, near Baghdad, typically Indian shell inlays and even pottery probably of theIndus manufacture have been found along with seals. After c. 1700 B. C. C. E. the traders of India lost commercial contact with the traders of Mesopotamia."

S. R. Rao says that the Indian traders first settled in Bahrein and used the circular seal. Later on the different sections of the Indian merchants colonized the different cities of Mesopotamia after the name of their race. The Chola colonized the land where the two rivers, the Tigris and Euphrates, approach most nearly and the banks touch the so called Median wall. They called their colony Cholades which later came to be known as Chaldea (i. e. the land of the Cholas) as a result of corrupt pronunciation. Similarly the Asuras of Vedic India colonized the city Asura after their name and later they established the Assyrian empire.

Archaeological evidence of the use of indigo in the cloths of the Egyptians mummies, Indian cedar in the palace of Nebuchandnzzarand Indian teak in the temple of the moon god at Ur shows the continuity of Indian commercial relations with the West. Rassam found a beam of Indian cedar in the palace of Nebuchadnezzar (604-562 B. C) at Birs Nimrud. In the second storey of the Temple of the Moon-God at ur rebuilt by Nebuchadnezzar and Nabonidus (555- 538 B. C.) Taylor found "two rough logs of wood apparently teak".

The ancient Egyptian traders sailed there boats not only on the Nile but also ventured into the Mediterranean and the Red Sea and even into the Indian Ocean, for they are said to have reached "God's land" or the land of Punt (India). Similarly the Indian traders sailed their ships not only on the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf, they also ventured into the Red Sea and even into the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea. From the very beginning Indian traders had a very fair knowledge of all the ancient oceans and seas of the populated world. the Egyptians called India as "God's land" because India was in those days culturally very much developed. The priest of ancient Egypt required vast quantities of aromatic plants for burning as incense; frankincense, myrrh and lavender were also used for embalmment purpose. Herodotus has left us a sickening description of the great number of spices and scented ointments of which India was the center. Beauty products from India also attracted the women of Egypt. The cosmetic trade was entirely dependent on imports chiefly from India. The Pharaohs of the fifth and sixth dynasties made great efforts to develop trade relations with the land ofPunt. Knemphotep made voyages to Punt eleven times under the captainship of Koui. This expedition was organized and financed by the celebrated Queen Halshepsut.

(source: Foreign Trade and Commerce in Ancient India - By Prakash Charan Prasad p. 36-43. For more information refer to chapter on India and Egypt)

Towards The East.

Southeast Asia has always been an integral part of the Indian consciousness is borne out by the fact that the countries of Southeast Asia so comprehensively embraced Hinduism and Buddhism in all its aspects. This spiritual and cultural affinity became an inseparable part of their ethos and way of life. Successive Indian kings and kingdoms from the first century AD and even before to the beginning of the 15th century, had regarded Southeast Asiaand the lands lying beyond as vital for their own strength, security and sustained development. This intricate and abiding web of relationships in turn contributed significantly to Indias sense of security in an extended neighborhood in whichIndia is neither seen as an alien power nor as a country with a colonial past.

The advent of the British in India and the struggle for influence between European powers that ensued all over Southeast Asia, suspended the continuous interaction that had existed between India and the region. Southeast Asia itself was carved up into areas of influence by the major colonial powers, viz., the British, French, Dutch and Portuguese. Indias cultural and commercial interaction with this region was therefore subordinated to the political and strategic considerations of the great powers. The relationship spanning nearly 2500 years was founded and nurtured on mutual interest and security in which both partners constantly enriched and reinforced each other.

In the opinion of Professor Kakasu Okakura author of The Ideals of the East, with Special Reference to the Art of Japan:

"Down to the days of the Mohammedan conquest went, by the ancient highways of the sea, the intrepid mariners of the Bengal coast, founding their colonies in Ceylon, Java and Sumatra, and binding Cathay (China) and India fast in mutual intercourse."

"India, indeed, began to exercise a profound cultural influence on her neighbors to the eastward - Burma, Siam, Malaya, Cambodia, Java and Sri Lanka all falling beneath her sway. And this, as far as one can may judge, almost entirely as a result of trading and peaceful penetration by missionaries, merchants and others, and not by force of arms." "The beginnings of Indian colonization overseas eastward go back a very long way in time and it is almost certain that the results seen today were, in the main, not achieved by military expedition, but by peaceful trading and religious teaching - and theThe control of the Indian seas belong predominantly to India till the thirteenth century A. D.In respect of the Arabian Sea this control meant only the freedom of navigation. There was no colonizing activity in that area, though Socotra, or Sukhadhara dwipa (the island of the blest) was discovered long before the Christian era and was probably under the Indian occupation at that time. Indian communities existed in Alexandria and other Egyptian towns and there were also settlements on the coasts of the Persian Gulf. But generally speaking, the navigation of the Arabian Sea was only for the purpose of trade. In case of Bay of Bengal, it was different. The supremacy in that sea was naval and political, based on an extensive colonization of the islands and this supremacy ceased only with the breakdown of Chola power in the thirteenth century. The naval activity of the Hindus was controlled by organized corporations of which the most important were the Manigramam Chetties and the Nanadesis. Of the Manigramam Chetties who traded all over the world we have authentic records in grants and inscriptions. The Bhaskara Ravi Varman plate of the Kerala King grants certain special privileges to the Manigramam guild. This body was given charter..including "the sword of sovereign merchantship" and monopoly rights of trading. Other "merchant adventurers" known from records are the Nanadesis, the Valangai and the Elangai who are described in the inscription at Baligami in Mysore as bodies of "brave men born to wander over many countries since beginning of the Krta Age (the first of the Indian Cycle of Yugas) penetrating regions of the six continents by land and water routes, and dealing in various articles, such as horses and elephants, precious stones, perfumes and drugs either wholesale or in retail."

Kalidasa, in the Raghuvamsa, tells of a tour of conquest of India, made by Raghy, the great-great-grandfather of Rama; starting from Ayodhya he went eastward to the ocean, having conquered the Bangalis, who trusted in their ships.

The textile industry of both Trichinopoly and Tanjore has been famous from early times. There can be little doubt that some of the finest fabrics that reached the Roman world came from this kingdom of Chola. From this part of India, in the middle ages, came those gold-threaded embroideries which were to such demand in the Saracen markets.

Marco Polo called Chola the kingdom of Maalabar called Soli, which is the best and noblest province in India, and where the best pearls are found.

(source: Periplus of the Erythrean Sea - W. H. Schoff p. 242- 250).

Reports Auguste Toussaint in his book, 'History of the Indian Ocean',

"The Mauryan emperor Chandragupta, who ruled from 321 to 297 B. C had even at that time, an actual Board of Admiralty, with a Superintendent of Ships at its head." References to it can be found in Kautilya's Arthasastra. From their voyages of conquest and trade, we can infer that although much later, the Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas of South India must also have had an efficient naval organization. The merchants of Surat, who relied upon ships built by the Wadias of Bombay (who had not taken long to copy prevailing European designs) were particularly rich - one of them Virji Vora (who died in the beginning of the 18th century) left a fortune of 22 million gold francs. "According to certain travelers, Surat was then the most beautiful city of India. One small detail will give an idea of the unparalleled luxury that prevailed there: certain streets were paved with porcelain. Francois Martin in his Memoires calls it 'a real Babylon'.

(source: History of the Indian Ocean - By Auguste Toussaint).

The waves of Indian migration before breaking on the shore of Americasubmerged the islands of the Indian Archipelago or Suvarnabhumi.

Colonel James Tod wrote: "The isles of the Archipelago were colonized by the Suryas (Surya-Vamsa Kshatriyas), whole mythological and heroic history is sculptured in their edifices and maintained in their writings."

(source: Annals and Antiquities of Rajasthan: or the Central and Western Rajput States of India ISBN 8120612892 Vol. II p. 218).

Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone says: "The histories of Java give a distinct account of a numerous body of Hindus from Kalinga who landed on their island, civilized the inhabitants and established an era still subsisting, the first year of which fell in the seventh year before Christ."

"These pilgrims sailed from the Ganges to Ceylon, from Ceylon to Java and from Java to China in ships manned by crews professing the Brahmmanical religion."

(source: History of India - By Mountstuart Elphinstone London: John Murray Date of Publication: 1849 p. 168-185).

Most of the sculptures show in splendid relief ships in full sail and scenes recalling the history of the colonization in Java by Indians in the earlier centuries of the Christian era.

Of one of them E. B. Havell thus speaks in appreciation:

"The ship, magnificent in design and movement, is a masterpiece in itself. It tells more plainly than words the perils which the Prince of Gujarat and his companions encountered on the long and his companions encountered on the long and difficult voyages from the west coast of India. But these are over now. The sailors are hastening to furl the sails and bring the ship to anchor."

Big ships were built. They could carry anywhere upwards from 500 men on the high seas. The Yuktialpataru classifies ships according to their sizes and shapes. The Rajavalliya says that the ship in which King Sinhaba of Bengal sent Prince Vijaya, accommodated full 700 passengers, and the ship in which Vijaya's Pandyan bride was brought over to Lanka carried 800 passengers on board. The ship in which Buddha in the Supparaka Bodhisat incarnation made his voyages from Bharukachha (Broach) to the "sea of the seven gems," carried 700 merchants besides himself. The Samuddha Vanija Jataka mentions a ship which accommodated one thousand carpenters.

(source: Manual of Buddhism - By Robert Spencer Hardy p. 13 and Hindu Raj in the World - By K. L. Lal p. 28).

Oldest Hindu Temple in Siam.

One of the most remarkable site in the center of Siam, is Srideb (Crip-tep), where statues of Hindu deities bearing Sanskrit inscriptions of the 5th to 6th century have been discovered. The art of Srideb is of excellent quality and provides a link between Indian art and the art of Indo-China. Quaritch Wales considered Srideb the oldest temple in Indo-China.

The author R. K. Mookerji of Indian Shipping says.

For more refer to chapters on Suvarnabhumi, Pacific and Sacred Angkor.

Naval Power for Conquest.

We have also historical evidence of some of the continental powers using their naval power for purposes of conquest. Pulikesin II the Chalukya king who reigned in the first half of the seventh century led a naval expedition of considerable size. The Zamorin of Calicut gloried in the title of the Lord of the Mountain and the Ocean, and one of the first writs he issued after coronation was to permit the usual navigation of the sea. The Pandyas, Cholas and others also maintained powerful navies, while the Rulers of Malabar exercised naval sway over the seas of the Western coast. From the fifth century to the tenth the command of the Malacca Straits was in the hands of a great Indian naval power, based onSumatra known to history as the Sri Vijaya Empire. This State included much of Peninsular Malaya, Sumatra and the Western half of Java besides numerous island principalities. I'Tsing who resided for some years in that Kingdom says that the King possessed numerous ships which sailed regularly between India and Sri Vijaya as also between Sumatraand China.

The Sri Vijaya Kings maintained a powerful navy which swept the sea of pirates and corsairs. Their naval power, well attested by their continuous raids on the coasts of Champa and Annam, is recorded both in local inscriptions and in Chinese annals, (e. g Po Nagar Stelae inscription of King Satya Varman 784 A. D. and in Yang Tikuh inscription of Indra Varman I, dated 787). With the Straits of Malacca firmly under their control and with their authority extending over the far flung group of islands, the Sri Vijaya Kings were in a position to enforce their rule over the Indian waves. Further, they were also closely connected with the Indian Kingdoms of the Eastern side of the Bay of Bengal especially with the Kalinga monarchs of Orissa.

Till the end of the tenth century, that is, for a period of nearly 500 years, the Sri Vijaya Kings were the Lords of the Ocean. But in 1007 the Chola Emperor Rajendra fitted out a powerful navy and challenged the might of Sri Vijaya. he not only defeated the opposing navy, but captured Kedah and established the Chola power on the Malaya Peninsula. This hundred year war was of great importance for it weakened the Sri Vijaya power. Chau Ju Kua, the Imperial Chinese Inspector of Foreign Trade, in his work entitled Chu Fau Chi written in 1225 states that Sri Vijaya was not merely a great emporium of trade, but controlled the Straits of Malacca and thus was able to dominate the sea trade to China with the west. All ships passing through the Straits had to call at the capital and the maritime administration kept a close watch on traffic through the lane.

As regards to Sumatra, the Bombay Gazateer says: "The Hindu settlements of Sumatra was almost entirely from the east coast of India, and that Bengal, Orissa and Masulipatam had a large share in colonizing both Java and Cambodia cannot be doubted."

India became the first power to defeat a European power in a naval battle - The Battle of Colachel in 1742 CE.

A dramatic and virtually unknown past, in an area of bucolic calm surrounded by spectacular hills: that is Colachel, a name that should be better known to us. For this is where, in 1741, an extraordinary event took place -- the Battle of Colachel. For the first, and perhaps the only time in Indian history, an Indian kingdom defeated a European naval force. The ruler of Travancore, Marthanda Varma, routed an invading Dutch fleet; the Dutch commander, Delannoy, joined the Travancore army and served for decades; the Dutch never recovered from this debacle and were never again a colonial threat to India.

Engineering of Ships.

A Pinnace or Yacht was a strongly masted ship, divided into two or three apartments, one for company, another for the beds, and a third as a cabinet, besides a place called varandah forwards for the servants. Balesore, the principal entrance of the Hugli, is described as being frequented by different sort of vessels, and particularly by large ships from Bombay, Surat, and other parts of the western coast.

Indian vessel as shown in the Fra Mauro map (1460).

The vessels from theGanges were called Schooners, which were very well fitted out and "able to make a voyage to Europe." their pilots being very skilful. The Grab was a ship with three masts, a pointed prow, and a bowsprit, its crew consisting of a Nakhoda or captain and a few khelasses or sailors. The grabs were built at Bombay, their pointed prow signifying Hindu construction. The Bangles were the largest Indian boats, some of them carrying four thousand or five thousand maunds of rice. Brigs were ships that came from the coast of Coromandel and Malabar, bringing to Calcutta the produce of those countries. To the coast of Coromandel (Cholamandel) also belonged the Dhoni, with one mast, resembling a sloop. Its deck consisted of a few planks fastened on each side. It was badly rigged. Pattooas, lastly, were those ships that differed from other vessels by their being clincher-built; "the boards are one upon the other, fastened by little pieces of iron in the form of cramps. The yard is always without sail, and the sails are hoisted and lowered by blocks."

Spice Trade in India: (Author: Louise Marie M. Cornillez)

Archaeologists estimate that from as far back as 50,000 B. C. humans had used the special qualities of aromatic plants to help flavor their food. The primitive human would have utilized the sweet-smelling spices in order to make food taste better. They would have offered all sorts of aromatic herbs to their primitive gods and used the spices for healing properties. From that moment on, spices played an important role in human existence.

Spice Trade in the Ancient World.

Trade in the ancient world included the use of caravans with as many as 4,000 camels carrying the treasures from the east, namely, spices. We can imagine the caravans trudging along from Calicut, Goa and the Orient to the spice markets in Babylon, Carthage, Alexandria, and Rome. For hundreds of years, traders also used ships which sailed along the Indian coast, past the Persian Gulf, along the coast of South Arabia, and finally through the Red Sea into Egypt. Trade in antiquity was subject to constant robberies, storms and shipwrecks, and piracy. Despite the setbacks, however, spices were in such great demand (especially during the highly developed Greek and Roman eras) that the profits outweighed the risks.

The most lucrative of the spice traders during this time were the Arabians. South Arabia was the great spice emporium in antiquity. In The Story of Spices, there is an anecdote as told by Herodotus about the method the Arabians had used to gather cinnamon:

Great birds, they say, bring the sticks which we Greeks call cinnamon, and carry them up into the air to make their nests. The Arabians, to get the cinnamon, use the following artifice. They cut all the oxen and beasts of burden that die in their land into large pieces and place them near the nests: then they withdraw to a distance, and the old birds, swooping down, seize the pieces of meat and fly with them up to their nests; which not being able to support the weight, break off and fall to the ground. Hereupon the Arabians return and collect the cinnamon, which is afterwards carried from Arabia to other countries. (Parry 38)

By taking advantage of the fact that people during this time believed in witchcraft, charms, omens, and magic, the Arabians had convinced the rest of the Ancient world that the only way they could obtain the valuable spices was by trading with the Arabians. The Arabians used mythological stories to hide the true sources of the spices and therefore succeeded in acquiring the first monopoly on the spice trade.

The Portuguese in India.

In 1498 during the Age of Discovery, one Vasco da Gama landed in Calicut, India and changed the course of history. da Gamas discovery of an alternate route to India marked the beginning of the short-lived dominion the Portuguese had on the spice trade. Under the impetus of the spice trade, Portugal expanded territorially and commercially. By the year 1511, the Portuguese were in control of the spice trade of the Malabar coast of India and Ceylon. Until the end of the 16th century, their monopoly on the spice trade to India was exceptionally profitable for the Portuguese.

The main product brought back to Lisbon was black pepper. Pipernigrum was as valuable as gold in the age of discovery. In the 16th century, over half of Portugals state revenue came from West African gold and Indian pepper and other spices. The proportion of the spices greatly outweighed the gold.

The Portuguese monopoly on the pepper trade was not a long one, however, because they faced many problems from competition and from the pepper growers. By the 1580s the imports of pepper into Venice had increased, and that into Portugal had declined. Portugal had little to no control over the areas where pepper was grown. There were many instances of illegal trading. Cargoes were hijacked inland and taken to the Red Sea by coolie or bullocks over the mainland. When the 1590s rolled around, the Dutch attacked and successfully put an end to the Portuguese monopoly.

Spice Consumption in Europe during the Renaissance.

People in the Renaissance found many uses for spices and the spice trade was basic to the Renaissance economy. Pepper was used to preserve and to flavor spoiled meat. Cloves and cinnamon were used as substitutes for cleanliness and ventilation. They were strewn across the floor to prevent foot odor from permeating the room. People carried around pieces of nutmeg fitted with a tiny grater, ready to season unsavory, unpalatable food. Around many a Renaissance throat there hung spicy pomander to ward off suffocation, illness, and odor. The spice supplier for most of the countries in Europe was India. Pepper originated out off Cochin and the Malabar Coast, cinnamon and cardamom were native to Ceylon, and cloves were grown in the coast of the Bay of Bengal.

The Dutch and English in India.

With the waning power of the Portuguese apparent, the Dutch and the English saw their opportunity to gain power in the spice trade world in India.

The Dutch entered the competition in earnest at the end of the 16th century. Dutch explorers Van Houtman and Van Neck made friends with native sultans and organized trading posts which eventually gave Holland the monopoly in the early 17th century. In 1658, the cinnamon trade in Ceylon was under their control, and in 1663, the best pepper ports on the Malabar Coast were theirs. When prices for cinnamon or other spices fell too low in Amsterdam, they would burn the spices.

England was an immense threat to the Portuguese and later, the Dutch, because they were a power at sea. In 1600, the British East India Company was chartered by Queen Elizabeth I, and its major objective was obtaining spice cargoes. The British worked slowly in their attempt to gain the power away from the Dutch, and finally in 1780, England and Holland started a war which severely weakened Dutch power in India. By the 1800s everything that once belonged to Portugal and Holland was controlled by the British.

Modern Trade.

Spice growers now export their products through their own organizations or through exporting houses. Spices are now distributed by food manufacturers, wholesalers and retailers. With the advances in technology and science, too, the spices are now able to flourish in other parts of the world with similar climates as India.

Compiled by Viswanathan Iyer.

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